How do you motivate an employee? There are many theories, but the one I found most useful as a manager is Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory. His theory can sound very academic, but the practical implications are solid. I will not detail the theory here but rather address several questions suggested by this theory. To be better at motivating your employees, managers should consider these questions. If you are not a manager, how would you answer these questions for your boss?

1. Have I made the level of performance I expect clear to those I manage?

• It is easy to think you have made clear the performance you expect when in fact you have not. 
• Perhaps you assumed people knew what you expected.
• Perhaps the standard is clear in your mind but not theirs.
• Perhaps you communicated the standards but the communication process broke down.
• Do your employees really know the performance standards to which you are holding them accountable?

2. Is the level of performance I expect achievable? As a young manager, I expected all my employees to match the performance of my very best employees. This was unrealistic. I wised up and figured out that I really should be setting standards based on good performance. Then I communicated those standards and implemented training for all to get there. Within a year, my team was winning performance awards.

3. Does each employee see the level of performance expected as achievable? This will vary but is crucial. How do employees see the relationship between their efforts and the level of performance required?

• Some employees know they can achieve the standards.
• Others may have doubts. Why those doubts? Do they need training? Equipment? Coaching? Or are there other issues distracting them from their efforts?
• In a few cases, the person-job match may not be a good one. 

If I do not see my efforts resulting in achieving the performance expected, my motivation will be low.

4. Do I give feedback and hold employees accountable?
Sometimes employees may not understand what is expected or may not realize they are not measuring up to expectations. Without feedback they will not know.

• To develop employees, feedback is essential.  
• Give positive feedback where warranted.
• Give corrective feedback where needed.

I think a major responsibility of managers is growing their employees.

5. Do I make clear to employees the relationship between their performance and outcomes they desire? Feedback from managers in corporate America: This is where we drop the ball.

• Link performance to individually desired outcomes wherever possible.
• Unless everyone performs equally, don't reward everyone equally
• If there is little or no relationship between performance and outcomes, why reward?

If I see no or little relationship between my performance and the outcomes I desire, my motivation will be low.
 
6. Do I know the outcomes that employees really value? This can be tough. Nearly all want to keep their jobs, perhaps increase pay, achieve desired promotions. The tickets to the professional baseball game that everyone received may be nice for some but not for all. If I do not value the outcomes, my motivation will be low. Highly desired outcomes can vary widely from person to person.

• If your span of control is 20 or less, you may know your direct reports well enough to know the outcomes they really want.

This really helped me as a manager. For example, I took over an operation with an outstanding program leader who had not received a promotion in many years. I told him, “Just give me the consistent high level of performance you gave your last boss, and I’ll do all I can to get you promoted.” He did and with some help I made it happen. But if I had failed, my employee would still have known I cared and I tried.

At the Academy of Management meeting in Boston in 2012, I listened to Vic Vroom talk about his career and his expectancy theory. He said that if he were developing expectancy theory today, he would give more thought to intrinsic rewards. For managers, it is easier to manage extrinsic motivational factors (pay, benefits, etc.) than intrinsic factors (job satisfaction, feeling of accomplishment, meaningfulness of work, etc.). But sometimes the most valued outcomes may be intrinsic. A simple “great job” may make someone's day. 

Modified from my original article published online, October 8, 2014, in the American Management Association's Playbook. 

Image by edman_eu. Obtained from https://pixabay.com/illustrations/graph-success-cooperation-together-1019845/​
Free to use. 

© John Ballard, PhD,  2019. All rights reserved.
_______________________
Decoding the Workplace “deals with principles and practices that are timeless . . . Is this a must-have for managers and would-be managers? Yes.” Academy of Management Learning & Education, June, 2018. 

Several years ago the last time the Academy of Management met in Boston, I attended an interesting season on the relationship between authentic leadership and eudaemonic well-being, a term with which I was not familiar. 
​
While the definitions of eudaemonic well-being vary somewhat, most come down to a distinction between hedonic or pleasure based well-being and eudaemonic or meaningful, purposive well-being.

In a 2005 Leadership Quarterly article ​Ilies, Morgeson, and Nahrgang stated that eudaemonic well being "reflects the Aristotelian concept of eudaemonia: Aristotle’s view of human happiness that assesses the goodness of life based on 'living in a manner that actively expresses excellence of character or virtue.' " Aristotle, like Maslow and other humanistic psychologists, saw life as being about growth, realizing one's potential. Ilona Boniwell provides an easy to read overview of theories of eudaimonic well-being. 

Ilies et al. argued that authentic leaders tend to have eudaemonic well-being and nurture such in their followers. So how do we develop authentic leaders with eudaemonic well being? The presenters at the conference emphasized experiential learning, that people can become more authentic leaders through training and development. Louis Baron presented the results of a three-year study that support this. Training and development sessions were 20% theory and 80% activities. Baron also used peer coaching where people were teamed up across companies to help each other, be "sounding boards" for each other, especially during "trigger events," moments in organizational life that pose significant challenges to leaders.

My take-away:

Authenticity in leadership goes back to ideas discussed by Mary Follett almost a hundred years ago. To grow as a leader, as a person, one needs to reflect on one's own experiences and then try new approaches where needed. It is not enough to be self aware. We grow by reflecting on our experiences and making adjustments. Thus we learn by informed trial and error. Having a "sounding board" can help.

Ilies, R., Morgeson, F. P., & Nahrgang, J. D.  (2005). Authentic leadership and eudaemonic well-being: Understanding leader-follower relations.The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 373-394.

Image, "Sunset", by bussdriver. From https://pixabay.com/photos/sunset-outdoor-sky-nature-natural-3424570/ 
No permission required.

© John Ballard, PhD,  2019. All rights reserved. Modified from earlier blog, August 2012.
_______________________
Decoding the Workplace “deals with principles and practices that are timeless . . . Is this a must-have for managers and would-be managers? Yes.” Academy of Management Learning & Education, June, 2018.

Textbooks present a variety of leadership theories from traits to behaviors (Ohio State and Michigan studies of leadership from the 1950’s) to situational (Fiedler, Path-Goal Theory). In recent decades we find leader-member exchange (Graen) and transactional/transformation leadership. In my opinion all but transformational leadership are more management style than leadership. Transformational, authentic leadership and servant leadership come closer to my idea of real leadership. 

Heroic leadership is rarely mentioned in textbooks. In a 2013 article in Organizational Dynamics, Bill Cohen reviewed criticisms of heroic leadership, discussed his research, and concluded with principles of heroic leadership. I found his article to be thought-provoking.

Cohen argues heroic leadership is transformational leadership, “not transactional leadership.” It may involve followers participating in decision-making or not. It can be found across organizational structures from hierarchies to organic. The degree of “direct control” will vary with the situation. 

What are heroic leaders? Here in Cohen's words are principles that mark heroic leaders:

• Maintain absolute integrity.
• Know your stuff.
• Declare your expectations.
• Show uncommon commitment.
• Expect positive results.
• Take care of your people.
• Put duty before self.
• Get out in front. 

Looks like great principles for leaders regardless of what leadership is called. In what some may perceive as an anti-heroic age, there is still a need for heroic leaders.

Cohen, W. A. (2013). Peter Drucker wants you to be a heroic leader. Organizational Dynamics, 42, 70-80.

Image of statue of Washington by Peter Kaminski. Used with permission. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en

© John Ballard, PhD,  2019. All rights reserved. Modified from earlier blog, January 2014.
_______________________
Decoding the Workplace “deals with principles and practices that are timeless . . . Is this a must-have for managers and would-be managers? Yes.” Academy of Management Learning & Education, June, 2018.

Stress is a normal part of most workplaces. A little stress can be good but stress can easily become dysfunctional and cost time, money, and energy. Estimates for the annual cost of dysfunctional stress in U.S. organizations range as high as $300 billion. Managers play a big role in determining the amount of stress is in the workplace. If you are a manager,  how well do you help reduce stress in the workplace? Or do you unnecessarily increase stress in the workplace? Here are six questions for managers to reflect on.  

1.  Do I inadvertently support stress-inducing norms? Every workplace has formal and informal rules. Some informal rules or norms become well established even though they may be dysfunctional. 

• Do employees work long hours beyond what is really necessary? 
• How long is the workday really? 
• Is time off for vacations encouraged or seen as behavior of those less loyal?

2. Do I consider the potential negative impact of my behaviors on others? Some managers behave inconsistently such that employees are not sure what to expect. A manager gives instructions on Monday, changes them on Wednesday, and changes them again on Friday. Others assign work to be done at the last minute and expect immediate results.

3. What information do I provide to my employees? Often managers tell employees what employees need to know but not necessarily what employees want to know. They may not need to know the context of a decision but where that context can be provided, it may be helpful. It is also good to avoid surprises. As soon as possible, stop rumors, especially those that may have a negative impact.

4. Am I really a good listener or do I just think that I am? I am continually surprised by the number of managers who think they are great listeners but aren’t. 

• Can you actively listen? 
• What is going on in your mind when someone is talking with you? 
• Are you thinking about answers to questions or formulating questions, or are you truly listening to the words, emotions, and body language of the other. 
• Worse yet, are you multi-tasking, for example, working on your computer? 

One key to helping employees manage workplace stress is recognizing it. Actively listening helps.

5. Do I support my employees? Easy to answer “sure” but do you?

• How easy is it for employees to come to you with requests or questions?
• How often do you ask, “Is there anything where you need my help?”
• Do you know your direct reports well enough to know what rewards they value the most?
• Can you identify recent actions on your part that demonstrate you support your people?

6. Am I a good role model? The leader sets the example. 

• Do you stay in the office until your boss is gone? 
• Do you manage your stress? Do you take time to exercise? 
• Do you meditate, do yoga, or engage in other activities that reduce your stress?Do you encourage use of any company policies that encourage wellness?

Stress impacts the bottom-line through health care costs and lost productivity. If you are a manager, assess your impact on stress in the workplace and adjust as best you can. For those not in managerial positions, think about your supervisors. How would you size them up on these questions? 

Modified from my original article published online, September 2, 2015, in the American Management Association's Playbook. 

Image, "stress-management", by Mohamed Hassan. Obtained from https://pixabay.com/illustrations/angry-businesswoman-conflict-3233158/
Free to use. 

© John Ballard, PhD,  2019. All rights reserved.
_______________________
Decoding the Workplace “deals with principles and practices that are timeless . . . Is this a must-have for managers and would-be managers? Yes.” Academy of Management Learning & Education, June, 2018.