How many leadership theories do we need? Since the early 1980s transformational leadership has dominated leadership research. We also have other popular and positive approaches to leadership: authentic, servant, and ethical. The degree to which these four leadership theories overlap are empirical questions. Fortunately we now have a study that moves us closer to having answers. 
 
Julia Hoch, Bill Bommer, Jim Dulebohn, and Dongyuan Wu published their research in the February 2018 issue of the Journal of Management. Using meta-analytic techniques they examined results from over 300 studies involving thousands of working adults. Among their findings were the following:

• Authentic leadership was highly correlated with transformational leadership (.75).
• Ethical leadership was highly correlated with transformational leadership (.70).
• Servant leadership was moderately correlated with transformational leadership (.50).
• Overall servant leadership was most distinct from transformational leadership.

They also examined each theory in relation to behavioral outcomes (e.g., job performance, organizational citizenship), attitudinal outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction, engagement, commitment), and relational perceptions (trust, leader-member exchange). 

• The relationships between the outcome variables and authentic leadership and ethical leadership were about the same as transformational leadership 
• On the other hand, servant leadership explained about 12% more of the variance than transformational leadership alone
• “Servant leadership is the only emerging form that seems to support construct nonredundancy [with transformational leadership theory].

The authors suggested, based on their findings, that the primary instrument used to measure transformational leadership, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), “could be augmented by including a fifth explicit ethical dimension.” For organizations, they suggested incorporating training in moral and ethical behavior, adding an ethical component to evaluations, and hiring ethical leaders.
 
My take-aways:
 
1. I have stated my opinion about leadership in my book, blogs, and other writings. Leaders inspire others to go above and beyond the normal requirements of the job. Transactional leadership is management; transformational leadership is leadership. 
2. Hoch and associates have offered empirical results that suggest authentic and ethical leadership theories cover leadership activities mostly covered by transformational leadership. However what they do offer, and what is brought more to the forefront by servant leadership, is the importance of ethical, moral conduct by a leader. Increasingly in popular media, we see the need for ethical leadership. 
3.  Organizational culture is important in nurturing and supporting ethical conduct. Unfortunately leaders who are less ethical or morally inclined may damage long-standing organizational norms.
 
Hoch, J. E., Bommer, W. H., Dulebohn, J. H., & Wu, D. (2018). Do ethical, authentic, and servant leadership explain variance above and beyond transformational leadership? A meta-analysis. Journal of Management, 44(2), 501-529.
 
Image, "Leadership", by Nick Youngson - http://www.nyphotographic.com/. Attribution: Alpha Stock Images - http://alphastockimages.com/  Original image:  http://creative-commons-images.com/handwriting/l/leadership.html Shared with permission: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/
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© John Ballard, PhD, 2018. All rights reserved.
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Decoding the Workplace “deals with principles and practices that are timeless . . . Is this a must-have for managers and would-be managers? Yes.” Ron Riggio, Book Review, Academy of Management Learning & Education, June, 2018. Now also available as an audiobook and paperback.  

The headline on the opinion page of The Wall Street Journal: “Why Do Women Shun STEM? It’s Complicated.” In the article Barbara Oakley, PhD, Professor of Engineering at Oakland University in Michigan, argued that professors “outside scientific fields” degrade STEM careers. They suggest to students that engineering is “not creative,” even “dehumanizing.” Non-STEM professors steer potential STEM students into non-STEM areas of study. As for the STEM workplace, she noted STEM career fields are not the only ones with “jerks” and “bullying.”
 
I understand Dr. Oakley’s arguments. The low number of women in STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) is very complicated. In Lean In Sheryl Sandberg, COO of Facebook, suggested stereotype threat “is one of the key reasons that so few study computer science.”  Women are more likely to pursue careers seen as more appropriate for women.
 
Often overlooked is that many women come to STEM careers after pursuing something else. For example, Dr. Oakley graduated from university with a degree in Slavic Languages and Literature. Five years later, she pursued her degree in Electrical Engineering. Turner, Bernt, and Pecora (2002) noted that “the field of information technology is a roadway with many on-ramps . . . for many successful women, interest and talent in IT emerged gradually and developed overtime” (p. 16). One survey of 275 women in IT found only a third had an undergraduate degree in IT or computer science. 
 
In 2006 I published a research study conducted with an IT professional, Karen Black, who came to IT after she was in the workplace, and also co-authored by a university colleague, Mary Ann Edwards, DBA, who came to academe after working in industry.  Part of our paper was a literature review of factors affecting STEM decisions for women. In 2013 I blogged about our findings. Here are several highlights:

• For women pursuing undergraduate degrees in IT or computer science, by far the most frequently mentioned influence: fathers. The enthusiasm of fathers for engineering or IT was “infectious.” Parents were highly influential but especially fathers.
• Surveys suggested some educators were discouraging: High school teachers (17%); guidance counselors (12%) –“not a field for girls.” 
• Schools emphasizing mathematics and science produced more women interested in STEM. 
• Positive experiences with mathematics correlated with interest in pursuing in STEM degrees.  
• STEM marketing should embrace the problem-solving, creativity, and variety in these careers.

My take-aways:
 
1. Increasing the percent of women in STEM careers will take time. Early influences are easy to overlook and difficult to affect as a society. The finding about fathers I found surprising so I discussed with a good friend, a woman prominent in IT. She agreed with the finding and suggested the seeds are sown by the 6th grade. It would be interesting to see if this finding is still valid. 
 
2. I agree with Sheryl Sandberg about stereotyping. I think Barbara Oakley makes a similar point. From media to some educators, there is a message that STEM careers just aren’t for women. To some degree rumors from male-dominated tech cultures may feed that stereotyping. But there are women in key positions in tech companies. Women leaders in tech may be the best to diagnose the problem and seek solutions. 
 
3. There is much interest in getting women into STEM degree programs. I think it is important to remember the many on-ramps. For women whose interest in STEM comes later, institutions of higher education and companies might find ways to provide educational support. 
 
4. I agree that STEM careers have opportunities for problem-solving and creativity. These positive attributes should be built into STEM marketing and media. 

Ballard, J., Scales, K., & Edwards, M. A. (2006). Perceptions of information technology careers among women in career development transition. Information Technology, Learning, and Performance Journal, 24 (2), 1-9.  
 
Oakley, B. (2018, July 14/15). "Why do women shun STEM? It's complicated. The Wall Street Journal. 
 
Image modified from https://pxhere.com/en/photo/693727. Public domain. https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/
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© John Ballard, PhD, 2018. All rights reserved.
 _________________________
Decoding the Workplace “deals with principles and practices that are timeless . . . Is this a must-have for managers and would-be managers? Yes.” Ron Riggio, Book Review, Academy of Management Learning & Education, June, 2018. Now also available as an audiobook.